Many marketing efforts perpetuate the gender stereotypes that are steeped in our culture. Two examples at attempts to maintai

See Chapter 8 in Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice for corresponding teaching materials.

SECTION 5

S E J U s I T " " " " " "

Introduction

Heather W. Hackman

Question: How do you manage to oppress over 50 percent of this society's population and not have a revolution on your hands? Answer: You make it seem "normal." So normal, in fact, that to question it would be akin to asking a fish about water. In the college classes I teach, students often illustrate this by denying examples of sexism and saying, "That's just the way it's always been." Even the most overt examples of sexism go unquestioned because these students have been completely immersed in the incessant narrative of sexism and know nothing else . . . "it's normal." Fortunately, however, once students do begin to see sexism in its various manifestations they want to know how on earth this is possible in a society that espouses "liberty and justice for all." This is an important question—how did we get to a place where economic inequality for women, violence against women, and the denial of women's basic rights over their own lives and bodies are still so commonplace and still so unquestioned?

In early 2012, as the election year continued to pick up steam, Melissa Harris-Perry of MSNBC asked a similar question: "Who would have thought in 2012 that contraception would be a matter of debate again?" (Harris-Perry, February 21, 2012). Who indeed. And yet, the use of women's legal rights, bodies, and overall role in society as a battleground for the 2012 political campaigns did just that. Were this the seventeenth century, the absolute control of women legally, eco- nomically, and physically in the name of politics and nation building would be commonplace and go unquestioned. Over the last century, however, women have steadily gained myriad rights regarding the control of their lives and bodies (e.g. Roe v. Wade in 1973), making the current encroachments on those rights more obviously problematic. Specifically, in the name of political expediency and the (re)assertion of male power, we are again seeing efforts to control women's legal rights (i.e. diluting national laws like the Violence Against Women Act), economic rights (popular demands that women leave the workplace so unemployed men can have their jobs), and bodies (decreasing contraception access for many women). Citing these examples and more, many observers described the tone regarding women in the 2012 election campaigns as single-mindedly regressive, and it was; not only in how it attacked women's rights, but in how it deeply wove class, race, and Christian hegemony into the efforts to do so. For example, the political lauding of the cult of (compulsory) motherhood and the assertion that to stay home and raise children is the highest and only calling a woman can have was not only sexist, but also deeply rooted in the class privilege of being able to afford to stay home, a racial history of white

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w e h e a r or e x p r e s s s e x i s t j o k e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f m i s o g y n y w e m a y n o t r e c o g n i z e i t , a n d even i f w e d o , say n o t h i n g r a t h e r t h a n r i s k other p e o p l e t h i n k i n g w e ' r e " t o o s e n s i t i v e " or, e s p e c i a l l y i n the case of m e n , " n o t one of the g u y s . " I n either case, w e are i n v o l v e d , if o n l y by o u r s i l e n c e .

T h e s y m b o l s a n d ideas that m a k e u p p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e are i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d because t h e y h a v e s u c h p o w e r f u l effects o n the s t r u c t u r e of social l i f e . B y " s t r u c t u r e , " I m e a n the w a y s that gender p r i v i l e g e a n d o p p r e s s i o n are o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n – s h i p s a n d u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s of r e w a r d s , o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d r e s o u r c e s . T h i s a p p e a r s i n c o u n t l e s s p a t t e r n s of e v e r y d a y h f e i n f a m i l y a n d w o r k , r e l i g i o n a n d p o l i t i c s , c o m m u n i t y a n d e d u c a t i o n . I t is f o u n d i n f a m i l y d i v i s i o n s o f l a b o r that e x e m p t fathers f r o m m o s t d o m e s t i c w o r k even w h e n b o t h p a r e n t s w o r k outside the h o m e , a n d i n the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w o m e n i n l o w e r – l e v e l p i n k – c o l l a r jobs a n d male p r e d o m i n a n c e a l m o s t e v e r y w h e r e else. I t is i n the u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n c o m e a n d a l l that goes w i t h it, f r o m access to h e a l t h care to the a v a i l a b i l i t y of l e i s u r e t i m e . I t is i n p a t t e r n s o f m a l e v i o l e n c e a n d h a r a s s m e n t that can t u r n a s i m p l e w a l k i n the p a r k or a t y p i c a l d a y at w o r k or a l o v e r s ' q u a r r e l i n t o a l i f e – t h r e a t e n i n g n i g h t m a r e . Adore than a n y t h i n g , the s t r u c t u r e of p a t r i a r c h y is f o u n d i n the u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of p o w e r that m a k e s o p p r e s s i o n p o s s i b l e , i n p a t t e r n s o f m a l e d o m i n a n c e i n e v e r y facet of h u m a n l i f e , f r o m e v e r y d a y c o n v e r s a t i o n to global p o l i t i c s . B y its n a t u r e , p a t r i a r c h y puts issues of p o w e r , d o m i n a n c e , a n d c o n t r o l at the center of h u m a n e x i s t e n c e , n o t o n l y in r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n , but a m o n g m e n as they c o m p e t e a n d struggle to gain status, m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l , a n d p r o t e c t t h e m s e l v e s f r o m w h a t o t h e r m e n m i g h t do to t h e m .

THE SYSTEM IN US IN THE SYSTEM

O n e o f the m o s t d i f f i c u l t things to accept about p a t r i a r c h y is that w e ' r e i n v o l v e d i n i t , w h i c h m e a n s w e ' r e also i n v o l v e d i n its c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y h a r d f o r m e n w h o refuse to believe t h e y b e n e f i t f r o m w o m e n ' s o p p r e s s i o n , because they c a n ' t see h o w t h i s c o u l d h a p p e n w i t h o u t t h e i r b e i n g p e r s o n a l l y o p p r e s s i v e i n t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s , f e e l i n g s , a n d b e h a v i o r . F o r m a n y m e n , being t o l d t h e y ' r e involved i n o p p r e s s i o n c a n o n l y m e a n they are o p p r e s s i v e .

A c o m m o n defense against this is to a t t r i b u t e e v e r y t h i n g to " s o c i e t y " as s o m e t h i n g e x t e r n a l a n d a u t o n o m o u s , w i t h w a n t s , needs, i n t e r e s t s , a n d the p o w e r to c o n t r o l p e o p l e by m a k i n g t h e m i n t o one s o r t o f p e r s o n or a n o t h e r . . . .

Societies d o n ' t e x i s t w i t h o u t people p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e m , w h i c h m e a n s that w e c a n ' t u n d e r s t a n d p a t r i a r c h y unless w e also ask h o w p e o p l e are c o n n e c t e d to it a n d h o w this c o n n e c t i o n v a r i e s , d e p e n d i n g on s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s u c h as race, gender, e t h n i c i t y , age, a n d class. . . .

F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , who w e a n d other p e o p l e t h i n k w e are has a lot to do w i t h where w e are in r e l a t i o n to social systems a n d a l l the p o s i t i o n s that p e o p l e occupy. W e w o u l d n ' t e x i s t as s o c i a l beings if it w e r e n ' t f o r o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n one s o c i a l s y s t e m or a n o t h e r . I t ' s h a r d to i m a g i n e just w h o w e ' d be a n d w h a t o u r e x i s t e n c e w o u l d consist o f i f w e t o o k a w a y a l l of o u r c o n n e c t i o n s to the s y m b o l s , ideas, a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s that m a k e up s o c i a l systems. . . .

I n t h i s sense, l i k e a l l s o c i a l s y s t e m s , p a t r i a r c h y e x i s t s o n l y t h r o u g h p e o p l e ' s l i v e s . T h r o u g h t h i s , p a t r i a r c h y ' s v a r i o u s aspects are there f o r us to see o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n . T h i s has t w o i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r h o w w e u n d e r s t a n d p a t r i a r c h y . F i r s t , to s o m e e x t e n t p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e p a t r i a r c h y as e x t e r n a l to t h e m ; b u t t h i s d o e s n ' t m e a n t h a t i t ' s

336 I S E X I S M

p e o p l e w h o believe i n A l l a h are I s l a m or C a n a d i a n s are C a n a d a . P a t r i a r c h y is a k i n d of society o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d c e r t a i n k i n d s of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d ideas. A s i n d i v i d u a l s , w e p a r t i c i p a t e i n i t . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n both shapes o u r l i v e s a n d gives us the o p p o r t u n i t y to be p a r t of c h a n g i n g or p e r p e t u a t i n g it. B u t we are not it, w h i c h m e a n s that p a t r i a r c h y c a n e x i s t w i t h o u t m e n h a v i n g " o p p r e s s i v e p e r s o n a l i t i e s " or a c t i v e l y c o n s p i r i n g w i t h one a n o t h e r to d e f e n d m a l e p r i v i l e g e . T o d e m o n s t r a t e that gender o p p r e s s i o n e x i s t s , w e d o n ' t h a v e to s h o w that m e n are v i l l a i n s , that w o m e n are g o o d – h e a r t e d v i c t i m s , that w o m e n d o n ' t p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r o w n o p p r e s s i o n , or that m e n n e v e r oppose it. I f a society is o p p r e s s i v e , then p e o p l e w h o g r o w up a n d live i n it w i l l tend to accept, i d e n t i f y w i t h , a n d p a r t i c i p a t e i n it as " n o r m a l " a n d u n r e m a r k a b l e l i f e . T h a t ' s the path of least resistance i n a n y s y s t e m . I t ' s h a r d n o t to f o l l o w i t , g i v e n h o w w e d e p e n d o n society a n d its r e w a r d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t s that hinge o n g o i n g a l o n g w i t h the status q u o . W h e n o p p r e s s i o n is w o v e n i n t o the f a b r i c o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , w e d o n ' t n e e d to go o u t of o u r w a y to be o v e r l y o p p r e s s i v e i n o r d e r f o r a n o p p r e s s i v e s y s t e m to p r o d u c e o p p r e s s i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s . A s the s a y i n g goes, w h a t e v i l r e q u i r e s is s i m p l y that o r d i n a r y people do n o t h i n g .

T h e c r u c i a l t h i n g to u n d e r s t a n d about p a t r i a r c h y or a n y o t h e r k i n d of s o c i a l s y s t e m is that i t ' s s o m e t h i n g p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t e i n . I t ' s a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s that c o n n e c t p e o p l e to one a n o t h e r a n d s o m e t h i n g l a r g e r t h a n t h e m s e l v e s . . . .

PATRIARCHY

T h e k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g any system is to i d e n t i f y its v a r i o u s parts a n d h o w t h e y ' r e a r r a n g e d to f o r m a w h o l e . . . . P a t r i a r c h y ' s d e f i n i n g elements are its m a l e – d o m i n a t e d , m a l e – i d e n t i f i e d , a n d m a l e – c e n t e r e d c h a r a c t e r , but this is just the b e g i n n i n g . A t its c o r e , p a t r i a r c h y is a set of s y m b o l s a n d ideas that m a k e u p a c u l t u r e e m b o d i e d by e v e r y t h i n g f r o m the c o n t e n t of e v e r y d a y c o n v e r s a t i o n to l i t e r a t u r e a n d f i l m . P a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e i n c l u d e s ideas about the n a t u r e of things, i n c l u d i n g m e n , w o m e n , a n d h u m a n i t y , w i t h m a n h o o d a n d m a s c u l i n i t y m o s t c l o s e l y associated w i t h being h u m a n a n d w o m a n h o o d a n d f e m i n i n i t y relegated to the m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n o f " o t h e r . " I t ' s about h o w s o c i a l l i f e is a n d h o w it's s u p – p o s e d to be; about w h a t ' s e x p e c t e d of p e o p l e a n d about h o w they f e e l . I t ' s about s t a n d a r d s of f e m i n i n e beauty a n d m a s c u l i n e toughness, images o f f e m i n i n e v u l n e r a b i h t y a n d m a s c u – l i n e p r o t e c t i v e n e s s , of o l d e r m e n c o u p l e d w i t h y o u n g w o m e n , of e l d e r l y w o m e n a l o n e . I t ' s about d e f i n i n g w o m e n a n d m e n as opposites, about the " n a t u r a l n e s s " of male aggr es s io n , c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d d o m i n a n c e a n d of f e m a l e c a r i n g , c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n . I t ' s about the v a l u i n g of m a s c u l i n i t y a n d maleness a n d the d e v a l u i n g of f e m i n i n i t y a n d f e m a l e – ness. I t ' s about the p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e of a h u s b a n d ' s career a n d the s e c o n d a r y status of a w i f e ' s , a b o u t c h i l d care as a p r i o r i t y i n w o m e n ' s l i v e s a n d its s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e i n m e n ' s . I t ' s about the social a c c e p t a b i l i t y of anget, rage, a n d toughness i n m e n but not i n w o m e n , a n d of e a t i n g , tenderness, a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n w o m e n but n o t i n m e n .

A b o v e a l l , p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e is about the c o r e v a l u e o f c o n t r o l a n d d o m i n a t i o n in a l m o s t e v e r y area o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e . F r o m the e x p r e s s i o n of e m o t i o n to e c o n o m i c s to the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , g a i n i n g a n d e x e r c i s i n g c o n t r o l is a c o n t i n u i n g g o a l of great i m p o r t a n c e . B e c a u s e of t h i s , the c o n c e p t of p o w e r takes o n a n a r r o w d e f i n i t i o n i n t e r m s o f " p o w e r o v e r " — t h e a b i l i t y to c o n t r o l o t h e r s , events, r e s o u r c e s , or oneself i n spite of r e s i s t a n c e — r a t h e r t h a n a l t e r n a t i v e s s u c h as the a b i l i t y to c o o p e r a t e w i t h o t h e r s , to give f r e e l y of oneself, or to feel a n d act i n h a r m o n y w i t h n a t u r e . T o h a v e p o w e r o v e r a n d to be p r e p a r e d to use it are d e f i n e d c u l t u r a l l y as g o o d a n d desirable ( a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y

334 I S E X I S M

o n I t — b u t i t is n o t true, that i s , it does n o t a c c u r a t e l y describe t h e i r c o n d i t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t to w o m e n ' s l i v e s , m e n ' s hves are s t r u c t u r e d a r o u n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s of p o w e r a n d m e n ' s dif- f e r e n t i a l access to p o w e r , as w e l l as the d i f f e r e n t i a l access to that p o w e t of m e n as a g r o u p . O u r i m p e r f e c t a n a l y s i s of o u r o w n s i t u a t i o n leads us to believe that w e m e n n e e d more p o w e r , r a t h e r t h a n l e a d i n g us to s u p p o r t f e m i n i s t s ' e f f o r t s to r e a r r a n g e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a l o n g m o r e equitable l i n e s .

W h y , t h e n , do A m e t i c a n m e n fee! so p o w e r l e s s ? P a r t of the a n s w e r is because w e ' v e c o n s t r u c t e d the r u l e s of m a n h o o d so t h a t o n l y the tiniest f r a c t i o n of m e n c o m e to beUeve t h a t they are the biggest o f w h e e l s , the s t u r d i e s t o f o a k s , the m o s t v i r u l e n t r e p u d i a t o r s o f f e m i n i n i t y , the most d a r i n g a n d aggressive. W e ' v e m a n a g e d to d i s e m p o w e r the o v e r w h e l m – i n g m a j o r i t y of A m e r i c a n m e n by other m e a n s — s u c h as d i s c r i m i n a t i n g o n the basis of r a c e , class, ethnicity, age, o r s e x u a l p r e f e r e n c e .

O t h e r s still rehearse the poUtics of e x c l u s i o n , as i f by c l e a r i n g a w a y the p l a y i n g field of secure gender identity of any that w e d e e m less t h a n m a n l y — w o m e n , gay m e n , n o n n a t i v e – b o r n m e n , m e n of c o l o r — m i d d l e – c l a s s , straight, w h i t e m e n c a n r e g r o u n d their sense of themselves w i t h o u t those h a u n t i n g fears a n d that deep shame that they are u n m a n l y a n d w i l l be e x p o s e d by other m e n . T h i s is the m a n h o o d of r a c i s m , of s e x i s m , of h o m o p h o b i a . I t is the m a n h o o d that is so c h r o n i c a l l y insecure that it trembles at the idea of Ufting the ban o n gays i n the mihtary, that is so threatened by w o m e n i n the w o r k p l a c e that w o m e n become the targets of s e x u a l harassment, that is so deeply f r i g h t e n e d of e q u a l i t ) ' that it m u s t ensure that the p l a y i n g field of male c o m p e t i t i o n remains stacked against a l l n e w c o m e r s to the game.

E x c l u s i o n a n d escape h a v e been the d o m i n a n t m e t h o d s A m e r i c a n m e n h a v e used to k e e p their fears of h u m i l i a t i o n at bay. T h e fear of e m a s c u l a t i o n by o t h e r m e n , of b e i n g h u m i l i a t e d , of b e i n g seen as a sissy, is the l e i t m o t i f i n m y r e a d i n g of the h i s t o r y of A m e r i c a n m a n h o o d . M a s c u l i n i t y has become a relentless test by w h i c h w e p r o v e to other m e n , to w o m e n , a n d u l t i m a t e l y to o u r s e l v e s , that w e h a v e s u c c e s s f u l l y m a s t e r e d the p a r t . T h e restlessness that m e n feel today is n o t h i n g n e w i n A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y ; w e h a v e been a n x i o u s a n d restless f o r a l m o s t t w o c e n t u r i e s . N e i t h e r e x c l u s i o n n o r escape has ever b r o u g h t us the r e l i e f w e ' v e sought, a n d there is n o r e a s o n to t h i n k that e i t h e r w i l l solve o u r p r o b l e m s n o w . Peace o f m i n d , r e l i e f f r o m gender struggle, w i l l c o m e o n l y f r o m a p o h t i c s of i n c l u s i o n , not e x c l u s i o n , f r o m s t a n d i n g u p f o r e q u a l i t y a n d j u s t i c e , a n d n o t by r u n n i n g away.

62

Patriarchy, the System

An It, Not a He, a Them, Or an Us

Allan G. Johnson

" W h e n y o u say p a t r i a r c h y , " a m a n c o m p l a i n e d f r o m the rear o f the a u d i e n c e , " I k n o w w h a t y o u really m e a n — m e ! " A lot o f p e o p l e h e a r " m e n " w h e n e v e r s o m e o n e says " p a t r i a r c h y , " so that c r i t i c i s m of gender o p p r e s s i o n is t a k e n to m e a n that a i l m e n — e a c h a n d e v e r y one

330 I SEXISM

D a v i d L e v e r e i i z argues that " i d e o l o g i e s of m a n h o o d h a v e f u n c t i o n e d p r i m a r i l y i n r e l a t i o n to the gaze of male peers a n d m a l e a u t h o r i t y . " T h i n k of h o w m e n boast to one a n o t h e r o f t h e i r a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s — f r o m t h e i r latest s e x u a l c o n q u e s t to the size o f the f i s h they c a u g h t — a n d h o w w e c o n s t a n d y p a r a d e the m a r k e r s of m a n h o o d — w e a l t h , p o w e r , status, s e x y w o m e n — i n f r o n t o f other m e n , desperate f o r t h e i r a p p r o v a l .

T h a t m e n p r o v e t h e i r m a n h o o d i n the eyes o f o t h e r m e n is b o t h a c o n s e q u e n c e of s e x i s m a n d one of its c h i e f p r o p s . " W o m e n h a v e , i n m e n ' s m i n d s , s u c h a l o w p l a c e o n the s o c i a l l a d d e r o f t h i s c o u n t r y t h a t it's useless to d e f i n e y o u r s e l f i n t e r m s o f a w o m a n , " n o t e d p l a y w r i g h t D a v i d M a m e t . " W h a t m e n n e e d is m e n ' s a p p r o v a l . " W o m e n become a k i n d o f c u r r e n c y that m e n use to i m p r o v e t h e i r r a n k i n g o n the m a s c u l i n e s o c i a l scale. ( E v e n those m o m e n t s of h e r o i c c o n q u e s t of w o m e n c a r r y , I b e l i e v e , a c u r r e n t of h o m o s o c i a l e v a l u a – t i o n . ) M a s c u l i n i t y is a homosocial e n a c t m e n t . W e test o u r s e l v e s , p e r f o r m h e r o i c feats, take e n o r m o u s r i s k s , a l l because w e w a n t other m e n to g r a n t us o u r m a n h o o d .

M a s c u l i n i t y as a h o m o s o c i a l e n a c t m e n t is f r a u g h t w i t h danger, w i t h the r i s k o f f a i l u r e , a n d w i t h intense relentless c o m p e t i t i o n . " E v e r y m a n y o u meet has a r a t i n g or a n estimate of h i m s e l f w h i c h he n e v e r loses or f o r g e t s , " w r o t e K e n n e t h W a y n e i n his p o p u l a r t u r n – o f – t h e – c e n t u r y a d v i c e b o o k . " A m a n has his o w n r a t i n g , a n d i n s t a n t l y he lays it alongside of the other m a n . " A l m o s t a c e n t u r y later, a n o t h e r m a n r e m a r k e d to p s y c h o l o g i s t S a m O s h e r s o n that " [ b ] y the time y o u ' r e an a d u l t , it's easy to t h i n k y o u ' r e a l w a y s i n c o m p e t i – t i o n w i t h m e n , f o r the a t t e n t i o n o f w o m e n , i n s p o r t s , at w o r k . "

MASCULINITY AS HOMOPHOBIA

H o m o p h o b i a is a c e n t r a l o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e of o u r c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n o f m a n h o o d . H o m o p h o b i a is m o r e t h a n the i r r a t i o n a l fear of gay m e n , m o r e t h a n the fear that w e m i g h t be p e r c e i v e d as gay. " T h e w o r d 'faggot' has n o t h i n g to d o w i t h h o m o s e x u a l e x p e r i e n c e o r even w i t h fears o f h o m o s e x u a l s , " w r i t e s D a v i d L e v e r e n z . " I t c o m e s o u t o f the d e p t h s of m a n h o o d : a l a b e l of u l t i m a t e c o n t e m p t f o r a n y o n e w h o seems sissy, u n t o u g h , u n c o o l . " H o m o p h o b i a is the fear that o t h e r m e n w i l l u n m a s k us, emasculate us, r e v e a l to us a n d the w o r l d that w e do n o t m e a s u r e u p , that w e are n o t r e a l m e n . W e are a f r a i d to let o t h e r m e n see that fear. F e a r m a k e s us a s h a m e d , because the r e c o g n i t i o n o f fear i n o u r s e l v e s is p r o o f to o u r s e l v e s that w e are n o t as m a n l y as w e p r e t e n d , that w e a r e , l i k e the y o u n g m a n i n a p o e m by Yeats, " o n e t h a t r u f f l e s i n a m a n l y pose f o r a l l his t i m i d h e a r t . " O u r fear is the fear o f h u m i l i a t i o n . W e are a s h a m e d to be a f r a i d .

S h a m e leads to s i l e n c e — t h e silences that k e e p o t h e r p e o p l e b e l i e v i n g t h a t w e a c t u – a l l y a p p r o v e o f the things that are d o n e to w o m e n , to m i n o r i t i e s , to gays a n d lesbians i n o u r c u l t u r e . T h e f r i g h t e n e d silence as w e s c u r r y past a w o m a n being hassled by m e n on the street. T h a t f u r t i v e silence w h e n m e n m a k e s e x i s t or racist j o k e s i n a bar. T h a t c l a m m y – h a n d e d silence w h e n guys i n the o f f i c e m a k e g a y – b a s h i n g j o k e s . O u r fears are the s o u r c e s o f o u r silences, a n d m e n ' s silence is w h a t keeps the s y s t e m r u n n i n g . T h i s m i g h t h e l p to e x p l a i n w h y w o m e n o f t e n c o m p l a i n t h a t t h e i r m a l e f r i e n d s or p a r t n e r s are o f t e n so u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h e n t h e y are a l o n e a n d y e t l a u g h at s e x i s t j o k e s or e v e n m a k e those j o k e s t h e m s e l v e s w h e n t h e y are out w i t h a g r o u p .

T h e fear o f b e i n g seen as a sissy d o m i n a t e s the c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n s of m a n h o o d . I t starts so early. " B o y s a m o n g boys are a s h a m e d to be u n m a n l y , " w r o t e one e d u c a t o r i n 1 8 7 1 . I h a v e a s t a n d i n g bet w i t h a f r i e n d that I c a n w a l k onto any p l a y g r o u n d i n A m e r i c a w h e r e 6 – y e a r – o l d boys are h a p p i l y p l a y i n g a n d by a s k i n g one q u e s t i o n , I c a n p r o v o k e a f i g h t . T h a t q u e s t i o n is s i m p l e : " W h o ' s a sissy a r o u n d h e r e ? " O n c e p o s e d , the c h a l l e n g e is m a d e . O n e

S E X I S M

is A , the o t h e r is N o t – A ; gender b o u n d a r i e s tell the i n d i v i d u a l w h o is l i k e h i m or h e r a n d a l l the rest are u n l i k e . F r o m s o c i e t y ' s p o i n t of v i e w , h o w e v e r , one gender is u s u a l l y the t o u c h s t o n e , the n o r m a l , the d o m i n a n t , a n d the other is d i f f e r e n t , d e v i a n t , a n d s u b o r d i n a t e . I n W e s t e r n society, " m a n " is A , " w o – m a n " is N o t – A . ( C o n s i d e r w h a t a society w o u l d be l i k e w h e r e w o m a n w a s A a n d m a n N o t – A . ) . . . T h e d o m i n a n t categories are the h e g e m o n i c i d e a l s , t a k e n so f o r g r a n t e d as the w a y things s h o u l d be that, . . . [t]he c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f these categories d e f i n e the O t h e r as that w h i c h l a c k s the v a l u a b l e q u a l i t i e s the d o m i n a n t s e x h i b i t .

Societies v a r y i n the e x t e n t o f the i n e q u a l i t y i n s o c i a l status o f t h e i r w o m e n a n d m e n m e m b e r s , but w h e r e there is i n e q u a l i t y , the status " w o m a n " ( a n d its a t t e n d a n t b e h a v i o r a n d r o l e a l l o c a t i o n s ) is u s u a l l y h e l d i n lesser esteem t h a n the status " m a n . " S i n c e gender is also i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h a societ)''s o t h e r c o n s t r u c t e d statuses o f d i f f e r e n t i a l e v a l u a t i o n — r a c e , r e l i g i o n , o c c u p a t i o n , class, c o u n t r y o f o r i g i n , a n d so o n — m e n a n d w o m e n m e m b e r s of the f a v o r e d g r o u p s c o m m a n d m o r e p o w e r , m o r e prestige, a n d m o r e p r o p e r t y t h a n the m e m – bers of the d i s f a v o r e d g r o u p s . W i t h i n m a n y s o c i a l g r o u p s , h o w e v e r , m e n are a d v a n t a g e d o v e r w o m e n . T h e m o r e e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s , s u c h as e d u c a t i o n a n d j o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s , are a v a i l a b l e to a g r o u p , the m o r e they t e n d to be m o n o p o l i z e d by m e n . I n p o o r e r g r o u p s that have f e w resources ( s u c h as w o r k i n g – c l a s s A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s i n the U n i t e d States), w o m e n a n d m e n are m o r e n e a r l y e q u a l , a n d the w o m e n m a y even o u t s t r i p the m e n i n e d u c a t i o n a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l status.

A s a structure, gender d i v i d e s w o r k i n the h o m e a n d i n e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t i o n , l e g i t i – m a t e s those i n a u t h o r i t y , a n d o r g a n i z e s s e x u a l i t y a n d e m o t i o n a l l i f e . A s p r i m a r y p a r e n t s , w o m e n s i g n i f i c a n d y i n f l u e n c e c h i l d r e n ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e m o t i o n a l a t t a c h – m e n t s , i n the process r e p r o d u c i n g gender. E m e r g e n t s e x u a l i t y is s h a p e d by h e t e r o s e x u a l , h o m o s e x u a l , b i s e x u a l , a n d s a d o m a s o c h i s t i c p a t t e r n s t h a t are g e n d e r e d — d i f f e r e n t f o r g i r l s a n d boys, a n d f o r w o m e n a n d m e n — s o that s e x u a l statuses r e f l e c t gender statuses.

W h e n gender is a m a j o r c o m p o n e n t of s t r u c t u r e d i n e q u a l i t y , the d e v a l u e d genders h a v e less p o w e r , prestige, a n d e c o n o m i c r e w a r d s t h a n the v a l u e d g e n d e r s . I n c o u n t r i e s that d i s – courage gender d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , m a n y m a j o r roles are still g e n d e r e d ; w o m e n s t i l l do m o s t o f the d o m e s t i c l a b o r a n d c h i l d r e a r i n g , even w h i l e d o i n g f u l l – t i m e p a i d w o r k ; w o m e n a n d m e n are segregated o n the job a n d each does w o r k c o n s i d e r e d " a p p r o p r i a t e " ; w o m e n ' s w o r k is u s u a l l y p a i d less t h a n m e n ' s w o r k . M e n d o m i n a t e the p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y a n d l e a d e r s h i p i n g o v e r n m e n t , the m i l i t a r y , a n d the l a w ; c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n s , r e l i g i o n s , a n d sports r e f l e c t m e n ' s interests. . . .

G e n d e r i n e q u a U t y — t h e d e v a l u a t i o n of " w o m e n " a n d the s o c i a l d o m i n a t i o n of " m e n " — has s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s a n d a s o c i a l h i s t o r y . I t is not the r e s u l t of s e x , p r o c r e a t i o n , p h y s i o l o g y , anatom y, h o r m o n e s , or genetic p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s . I t is p r o d u c e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d by i d e n – t i f i a b l e s o c i a l processes a n d b u i l t into the g e n e r a l s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d i n d i v i d u a l i d e n t i – ties d e l i b e r a t e l y a n d p u r p o s e f u l l y . T h e s o c i a l o r d e r as w e k n o w it i n W e s t e r n societies is o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d r a c i a l , e t h n i c , class, a n d gender i n e q u a l i t y . I c o n t e n d , t h e r e f o r e , that the c o n t i n u i n g p u r p o s e o f gender as a m o d e r n s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n is to c o n s t r u c t w o m e n as a g r o u p to be the s u b o r d i n a t e s of m e n as a g r o u p . T h e hfe o f e v e r y o n e p l a c e d i n the status " w o m a n " is " n i g h t to h i s d a y — t h a t has f o r e v e r been the fantasy. B l a c k to h i s w h i t e . S h u t out of his s y s t e m ' s space, she is the r e p r e s s e d that ensures the s y s t e m ' s f u n c t i o n i n g . "

T h e r e is n o c o r e or b e d r o c k h u m a n n a t u r e b e l o w these e n d l e s s l y l o o p i n g processes o f the s o c i a l p r o d u c t i o n of s e x a n d gender, self a n d other, i d e n t i t y a n d p s y c h e , each o f w h i c h is a " c o m p l e x c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n . " For humans, the social is the natural. T h e r e f o r e , " i n its f e m i n i s t senses, gender c a n n o t m e a n s i m p l y the c u l t u r a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n of b i o l o g i c a l s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e . S e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e is itself a f u n d a m e n t a l — a n d s c i e n t i f i c a l l y

326 1 S E X I S M

r e j e c t i n g w h a t is n o t a p p r o p r i a t e . I f their s o c i a l categories are h i g h l y v a l u e d , they v a l u e them sel ves h i g h l y ; i f t h e i r s o c i

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